Turing, Alan M. 1950. “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.” Mind 59 (236): 433–460. https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433. Source primaire.
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Recherchez par auteur, titre, code stable, clé dans le livre ou numéro de note. Saisissez Note 1 (ou 1) pour trouver uniquement les sources citées dans cette note précise du livre. Le champ Cité dans utilise les numéros de note du livre V51.2 ; les entrées propres aux ressources sont identifiées séparément.
Turing, Alan M. 1950. “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.” Mind 59 (236): 433–460. https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433. Source primaire.
McCarthy, John, Marvin L. Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude E. Shannon. 2006. “A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence, August 31, 1955.” AI Magazine 27 (4): 12–14. https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v27i4.1904. Proposition originale datée du 31 août 1955 ; extrait republié en 2006. Source historique primaire ; le livre cite la réédition de 2006. Archive de la proposition originale : https://jmc.stanford.edu/articles/dartmouth/dartmouth.pdf.
Rosenblatt, Frank. 1958. “The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and Organization in the Brain.” Psychological Review 65 (6): 386–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042519. Source primaire.
Minsky, Marvin, and Seymour A. Papert. 1987. Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry. Expanded ed. MIT Press. First published 1969. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262631112/perceptrons/. Source primaire ; la page de l’éditeur renvoie à l’édition augmentée.
Rumelhart, David E., Geoffrey E. Hinton, and Ronald J. Williams. 1986. “Learning Representations by Back-Propagating Errors.” Nature 323 (6088): 533–536. https://doi.org/10.1038/323533a0. Source primaire.
IBM. n.d. “Deep Blue.” https://www.ibm.com/history/deep-blue. Archive officielle de l’entreprise. Consultation : 2026. Jalon historique : 1997.
Krizhevsky, Alex, Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey E. Hinton. 2012. “ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks.” Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 25. https://papers.nips.cc/paper_files/paper/2012/hash/c399862d3b9d6b76c8436e924a68c45b-Abstract.html. Source primaire. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://papers.nips.cc/paper/4824-imagenet-classification-with-deep-convolutional-neural-networks.
Vaswani, Ashish, Noam Shazeer, Niki Parmar, Jakob Uszkoreit, Llion Jones, Aidan N. Gomez, Łukasz Kaiser, and Illia Polosukhin. 2017. “Attention Is All You Need.” Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 30. https://papers.nips.cc/paper_files/paper/2017/hash/3f5ee243547dee91fbd053c1c4a845aa-Abstract.html. Source primaire. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762.
Weizenbaum, Joseph. 1966. “ELIZA, a Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication between Man and Machine.” Communications of the ACM 9 (1): 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1145/365153.365168. Source primaire.
OpenAI. 2022. “Introducing ChatGPT.” November 30, 2022. https://openai.com/index/chatgpt/. Annonce officielle de l’entreprise.
DARPA. n.d. “ARPANET.” https://www.darpa.mil/news/features/arpanet. Archive institutionnelle officielle. Consultation : 2026. Jalon historique : 1969.
Internet Society. 2013. “New Year’s Day Marks 30th Anniversary of Major Milestone for Global Internet.” January 1, 2013. https://www.internetsociety.org/news/press-releases/2013/new-years-day-marks-30th-anniversary-of-major-milestone-for-global-internet/. Documentation institutionnelle.
CERN. n.d. “A Short History of the Web.” https://home.cern/science/computing/the-birth-of-the-web/short-history-web/. Archive institutionnelle officielle. Consultation : 2026.
CERN. 2013. “The Open Internet and the Web.” April 30, 2013. https://home.cern/open-internet-and-web/. Documentation officielle.
Howe, Jim. 2007. “Artificial Intelligence at Edinburgh University: A Perspective.” June 2007. School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh. https://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/about/AIhistory.html. Récit historique institutionnel.
McDermott, Drew, M. Mitchell Waldrop, B. Chandrasekaran, John McDermott, and Roger Schank. 1985. “The Dark Ages of AI: A Panel Discussion at AAAI-84.” AI Magazine 6 (3): 122–134. https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v6i3.494. Source historique primaire, table ronde publiée.
Turpin, Miles, Julian Michael, Ethan Perez, and Samuel R. Bowman. 2023. “Language Models Don’t Always Say What They Think: Unfaithful Explanations in Chain-of-Thought Prompting.” NeurIPS 2023 conference paper, author manuscript, arXiv:2305.04388v2. https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.04388v2. Article de recherche présenté en conférence et manuscrit de l’auteur ; les résultats concernent les modèles et les requêtes testés.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), Verifiable Credentials Working Group. 2025c. Verifiable Credentials Data Model v2.0. W3C Recommendation, May 15, 2025. https://www.w3.org/TR/2025/REC-vc-data-model-2.0-20250515/. Recommandation du W3C. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://www.w3.org/TR/vc-data-model-2.0/.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), Verifiable Credentials Working Group. 2025b. Verifiable Credential Data Integrity 1.0. W3C Recommendation, May 15, 2025. https://www.w3.org/TR/2025/REC-vc-data-integrity-20250515/. Recommandation du W3C. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://www.w3.org/TR/vc-data-integrity/.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), Verifiable Credentials Working Group. 2025a. Securing Verifiable Credentials Using JOSE and COSE. W3C Recommendation, May 15, 2025. https://www.w3.org/TR/2025/REC-vc-jose-cose-20250515/. Recommandation du W3C. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://www.w3.org/TR/vc-jose-cose/.
OpenID Foundation, Digital Credentials Protocols Working Group. 2025a. OpenID for Verifiable Credential Issuance 1.0. Final specification, September 16, 2025. https://openid.net/specs/openid-4-verifiable-credential-issuance-1_0.html. Spécification finale.
OpenID Foundation, Digital Credentials Protocols Working Group. 2025b. OpenID for Verifiable Presentations 1.0. Final specification, July 9, 2025. https://openid.net/specs/openid-4-verifiable-presentations-1_0.html. Spécification finale.
Temoshok, David, Diana Proud-Madruga, Yee-Yin Choong, Ryan Galluzzo, Sarbari Gupta, Connie LaSalle, Naomi Lefkovitz, and Andrew Regenscheid. 2025. Digital Identity Guidelines. NIST Special Publication 800-63-4. National Institute of Standards and Technology. July 2025. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63-4. Norme technique finale.
Yaga, Dylan, Peter Mell, Nik Roby, and Karen Scarfone. 2018. Blockchain Technology Overview. NIST Interagency/Internal Report 8202. National Institute of Standards and Technology. October 2018. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8202. Rapport technique officiel.
Burrell, Jenna. 2016. “How the Machine ‘Thinks’: Understanding Opacity in Machine Learning Algorithms.” Big Data & Society 3 (1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951715622512. Analyse sociotechnique de l’opacité algorithmique évaluée par les pairs.
Coalition for Content Provenance and Authenticity (C2PA). n.d. C2PA and Content Credentials Explainer. Version 2.2. https://spec.c2pa.org/specifications/specifications/2.2/explainer/Explainer.html. Présentation technique, version 2.2 ; la vérification de la provenance n’est pas un jugement de vérité.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). 2023a. Artificial Intelligence Risk Management Framework (AI RMF 1.0). January 2023. NIST AI 100-1. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.AI.100-1. Cadre officiel volontaire de gestion des risques ; ne valide ni n’approuve le Test 2050 de l’auteur.
Parasuraman, Raja, and Victor Riley. 1997. “Humans and Automation: Use, Misuse, Disuse, Abuse.” Human Factors 39 (2): 230–253. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872097778543886. Analyse des facteurs humains dans l’usage et le mésusage de l’automatisation, évaluée par les pairs.
Schwartz, Reva, Apostol Vassilev, Kristen Greene, Lori Perine, Andrew Burt, and Patrick Hall. 2022. Towards a Standard for Identifying and Managing Bias in Artificial Intelligence. NIST Special Publication 1270. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Corrected March 24, 2022. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1270. Rapport technique officiel sur les sources systémiques, statistiques et humaines des biais.
International Organization for Standardization and International Electrotechnical Commission. 2023. Information Technology: Artificial Intelligence, Management System. ISO/IEC 42001:2023. https://www.iso.org/standard/42001. Norme internationale relative aux systèmes de management.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2021. Ethics and Governance of Artificial Intelligence for Health: WHO Guidance. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240029200. Lignes directrices institutionnelles.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2023. Regulatory Considerations on Artificial Intelligence for Health. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240078871. Aperçu institutionnel des considérations réglementaires, explicitement présenté comme n’étant ni des lignes directrices, ni un cadre réglementaire, ni une politique.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2024. Ethics and Governance of Artificial Intelligence for Health: Guidance on Large Multi-Modal Models. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240084759. Édition et référence bibliographique de l’OMS : 2024 ; page institutionnelle actuelle datée du 2025-03-25. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://www.who.int/publications/b/70584.
World Health Organization (WHO), Regional Office for Europe. 2026. Artificial Intelligence Is Reshaping Health Systems: State of Readiness across the European Union. WHO/EURO:2026-12707-52481-81471. https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/WHO-EURO-2026-12707-52481-81471. Rapport institutionnel sur la préparation des systèmes de santé des 27 États membres de l’UE ; ne constitue pas une preuve clinique d’efficacité. WHO/EURO:2026-12707-52481-81471.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2026. Artificial Intelligence and Evidence-Informed Policy: Emerging Challenges and Opportunities: Discussion Paper. B09667. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/B09667. Document technique institutionnel ; appelle à une supervision, à des évaluations d’impact et au jugement humain.
Medical Device Coordination Group (MDCG). 2025. Guidance on Qualification and Classification of Software in Regulation (EU) 2017/745, MDR, and Regulation (EU) 2017/746, IVDR. June 17, 2025. MDCG 2019-11 rev.1. https://health.ec.europa.eu/document/download/b45335c5-1679-4c71-a91c-fc7a4d37f12b_en. Lignes directrices officielles de la Commission européenne, et non un acte législatif.
Artificial Intelligence Board (AIB) and Medical Device Coordination Group (MDCG). 2025. Interplay between the Medical Devices Regulation, the In Vitro Diagnostic Medical Devices Regulation and the Artificial Intelligence Act. AIB 2025-1; MDCG 2025-6. https://health.ec.europa.eu/document/download/b78a17d7-e3cd-4943-851d-e02a2f22bbb4_en. Lignes directrices officielles conjointes, et non un acte législatif.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2025b. “Mental Health of Adolescents.” September 1, 2025. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health. Fiche d’information institutionnelle.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2025a. From Loneliness to Social Connection: Charting a Path to Healthier Societies. Report of the WHO Commission on Social Connection. https://www.who.int/groups/commission-on-social-connection/report. Rapport institutionnel.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Innocenti. 2025. Guidance on AI and Children. Version 3.0. https://www.unicef.org/innocenti/reports/policy-guidance-ai-children. Lignes directrices institutionnelles fondées sur les droits de l’enfant.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). 2026. When AI Becomes a Friend: Child Rights Risks, Harms, and Regulatory Responses to AI Chatbots and Companions. June 2026. Policy brief. https://www.unicef.org/documents/when-ai-becomes-friend-child-rights-risks. Note de politique publique ; examen réglementaire actualisé jusqu’au 2026-05-15, et non preuve clinique.
U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC). 2025. “FTC Launches Inquiry into AI Chatbots Acting as Companions.” September 2025. https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2025/09/ftc-launches-inquiry-ai-chatbots-acting-companions. Enquête réglementaire, et non constat clinique.
Miao, Fengchun, and Wayne Holmes. 2023. Guidance for Generative AI in Education and Research. UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000386693. Lignes directrices institutionnelles. Page de publication : https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/guidance-generative-ai-education-and-research.
Gmyrek, Paweł, Janine Berg, Karol Kamiński, Filip Konopczyński, Agnieszka Ładna, Balint Nafradi, Konrad Rosłaniec, and Marek Troszyński. 2025. Generative AI and Jobs: A Refined Global Index of Occupational Exposure. ILO Working Paper 140. https://doi.org/10.54394/HETP0387. Rapport de recherche institutionnel.
Öhman, Carl, and Luciano Floridi. 2018. “An Ethical Framework for the Digital Afterlife Industry.” Nature Human Behaviour 2: 318–320. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0335-2. Article scientifique.
UN Trade and Development (UNCTAD). 2025. Technology and Innovation Report 2025: Inclusive Artificial Intelligence for Development. United Nations. https://unctad.org/publication/technology-and-innovation-report-2025. Rapport des Nations unies.
Autor, David H. 2015. “Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 29 (3): 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.29.3.3. Analyse économique évaluée par les pairs, et non prévision pour 2050.
Bastani, Hamsa, Osbert Bastani, Alp Sungu, Haosen Ge, Özge Kabakcı, and Rei Mariman. 2025. “Generative AI without Guardrails Can Harm Learning: Evidence from High School Mathematics.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122 (26): e2422633122. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2422633122. Étude éducative randomisée évaluée par les pairs ; les résultats sont propres au cadre et aux outils testés.
Brady, William J., Julian A. Wills, John T. Jost, Joshua A. Tucker, and Jay J. Van Bavel. 2017. “Emotion Shapes the Diffusion of Moralized Content in Social Networks.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114 (28): 7313–7318. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618923114. Étude observationnelle évaluée par les pairs ; une association n’établit pas que l’algorithme d’une plateforme en est la cause.
Brynjolfsson, Erik, Danielle Li, and Lindsey Raymond. 2025. “Generative AI at Work.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 140 (2): 889–942. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjae044. Étude en milieu professionnel évaluée par les pairs ; ne constitue pas une preuve d’effets à l’échelle de l’économie entière.
De Freitas, Julian, Zeliha Oğuz-Uğuralp, Ahmet Kaan Uğuralp, and Stefano Puntoni. 2026. “AI Companions Reduce Loneliness.” Journal of Consumer Research 52 (6): 1126–1148. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaf040. Étude évaluée par les pairs sur le soulagement de la solitude à court terme ; ne constitue pas une preuve de bénéfice clinique durable.
Doshi, Anil R., and Oliver P. Hauser. 2024. “Generative AI Enhances Individual Creativity but Reduces the Collective Diversity of Novel Content.” Science Advances 10 (28): eadn5290. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adn5290. Expérience randomisée d’écriture créative évaluée par les pairs ; les résultats sont propres à son dispositif.
Fitzpatrick, Kathleen Kara, Alison Darcy, and Molly Vierhile. 2017. “Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults with Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial.” JMIR Mental Health 4 (2): e19. https://doi.org/10.2196/mental.7785. Essai contrôlé randomisé d’un agent conversationnel structuré, évalué par les pairs ; ne porte pas sur un compagnon génératif à conversation ouverte.
Hollanek, Tomasz, and Katarzyna Nowaczyk-Basińska. 2024. “Griefbots, Deadbots, Postmortem Avatars: On Responsible Applications of Generative AI in the Digital Afterlife Industry.” Philosophy & Technology 37: 63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-024-00744-w. Analyse éthique évaluée par les pairs recourant à la conception spéculative, et non étude de résultats cliniques.
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2025a. Energy and AI. https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-and-ai. Rapport institutionnel.
Shehabi, Arman, Sarah Josephine Smith, Alex Hubbard, Alexander Newkirk, Nuoa Lei, Md AbuBakar Siddik, Billie Holecek, Jonathan G. Koomey, Eric R. Masanet, and Dale A. Sartor. 2024. 2024 United States Data Center Energy Usage Report. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. https://doi.org/10.71468/P1WC7Q. Rapport technique officiel. DOI 10.71468/P1WC7Q. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://eta.lbl.gov/publications/2024-lbnl-data-center-energy-usage-report.
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2019. “Water-Use Terminology.” February 27, 2019. https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources/science/water-use-terminology. Page officielle. Consultation : 2026-07-15. Définitions opérationnelles du prélèvement et de la consommation d’eau.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 2006a. Environmental Management: Life Cycle Assessment, Principles and Framework. ISO 14040:2006. https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 2006b. Environmental Management: Life Cycle Assessment, Requirements and Guidelines. ISO 14044:2006. https://www.iso.org/standard/38498.html. Éditions en vigueur confirmées en 2022. Normes méthodologiques.
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 2026. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026. https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2026. Rapport officiel.
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2025b. Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2025. Rapport institutionnel.
Baldé, Cornelis P., Ruediger Kuehr, Tales Yamamoto, Rosie McDonald, Elena D’Angelo, Shahana Althaf, Garam Bel, et al. 2024. The Global E-Waste Monitor 2024. 2nd ed. International Telecommunication Union and United Nations Institute for Training and Research. https://ewastemonitor.info/the-global-e-waste-monitor-2024/. Rapport des Nations unies. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://www.itu.int/hub/publication/d-gen-e_waste-01-2024/.
Starcloud. n.d. “Starcloud-1.” https://www.starcloud.com/starcloud-1. Page de l’entreprise consacrée à ses propres activités ; elle déclare que le satellite a été lancé en 2025-11, sans démontrer le passage à l’échelle ni la viabilité commerciale. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
Axiom Space. n.d. “Orbital Data Centers.” https://www.axiomspace.com/orbital-data-center. Page de l’entreprise consacrée à ses propres activités ; elle déclare que les deux premiers nœuds dédiés ont été lancés en orbite terrestre basse le 2026-01-11. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
Beals, Travis. 2025. “Exploring a Space-Based, Scalable AI Infrastructure System Design.” November 4, 2025. Google Research. https://research.google/blog/exploring-a-space-based-scalable-ai-infrastructure-system-design/. Annonce de l’entreprise concernant le Project Suncatcher ; les deux satellites prototypes prévus pour le début de 2027 restent un projet annoncé, et non un lancement effectué. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
European Commission, CORDIS. 2026. “Advanced Space Cloud for European Net Zero Emissions and Data Sovereignty (ASCEND), Grant Agreement 101082517: Periodic Reporting.” January 14, 2026. https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/101082517/reporting. Fiche et rapport institutionnels de faisabilité ; ne constituent pas une source technique indépendante. DOI du projet 10.3030/101082517. Consultation : 2026-07-17. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/101082517.
Turyshev, Slava G. 2026. Orbital Data Centers: Spacecraft Constraints and Economic Viability. Preprint, arXiv:2604.27197v1, April 29, 2026. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2604.27197. Prépublication technique indépendante, arXiv:2604.27197. DOI 10.48550/arXiv.2604.27197. Consultation : 2026-07-17. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://arxiv.org/abs/2604.27197.
Al Ahmad, Mahmoud, Qurban Memon, and Michael Pecht. 2026. “Reliability and Risk in Space-Based Data Centers: A Lifecycle Assessment of Orbital Cloud Infrastructure.” Applied Sciences 16 (11): 5247. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16115247. Article technique indépendant évalué par les pairs. DOI 10.3390/app16115247. Consultation : 2026-07-17. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/16/11/5247.
Wilson, Andrew R., Massimiliano Vasile, Christie Maddock, and Keith Baker. 2023. “Implementing Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment for Improved Space Mission Design.” Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 19 (4): 1002–1022. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4722. Article technique indépendant évalué par les pairs. DOI 10.1002/ieam.4722. Consultation : 2026-07-17. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ieam.4722.
Murphy, Daniel M., Maya Abou-Ghanem, Daniel J. Cziczo, Karl D. Froyd, Justin Jacquot, Michael J. Lawler, Christopher Maloney, et al. 2023. “Metals from Spacecraft Reentry in Stratospheric Aerosol Particles.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 120 (43): e2313374120. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2313374120. Article scientifique indépendant évalué par les pairs ; copie dans le dépôt institutionnel de la NOAA. DOI 10.1073/pnas.2313374120. Consultation : 2026-07-17. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/58476.
Kenya Ports Authority. n.d. “Port of Mombasa.” https://kpa.co.ke/Ports/PortOfMombasa. Page institutionnelle sur les liaisons multimodales du port avec son arrière-pays. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
Northern Corridor Transit and Transport Coordination Authority (NCTTCA). n.d.-b. “Who We Are.” https://www.ttcanc.org/about-us/who-we-are/. Page institutionnelle sur le Corridor Nord entre le port de Mombasa et les pays sans littoral de la région des Grands Lacs. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), CHIPS for America. 2023b. Vision for Success: Facilities for Semiconductor Materials and Manufacturing Equipment. June 23, 2023. https://www.nist.gov/document/vision-success-facilities-semiconductor-materials-and-manufacturing-equipment. Documentation officielle.
U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). 2022. Semiconductor Supply Chain: Policy Considerations from Selected Experts for Reducing Risks and Mitigating Shortages. July 26, 2022. GAO-22-105923. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-22-105923. Rapport officiel.
European Commission. n.d.-d. “European Chips Act.” https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/european-chips-act. Page institutionnelle sur le cadre en vigueur ; il ne s’agit pas d’un acte législatif. Consultation : 2026.
European Commission. 2026c. “Proposal for the Chips Act 2.0.” June 3, 2026. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/proposal-chips-act-20. Proposition législative, et non texte de droit déjà adopté.
U.S. Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS). 2026c. “Revision to License Review Policy for Advanced Computing Commodities.” Final rule. Federal Register 91 (January 15, 2026): 1684. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2026/01/15/2026-00789/revision-to-license-review-policy-for-advanced-computing-commodities. Règle définitive officielle ; l’applicabilité dépend de la transaction et des EAR en vigueur. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), in partnership with the International Cable Protection Committee (ICPC). 2026. International Advisory Body on Submarine Cable Resilience: Report of the Working Groups 2026. ISBN 978-92-61-40561-8. https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/opb/iab/S-IAB-WG-2026-PDF-E.pdf. Rapport institutionnel final. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://www.itu.int/hub/publication/s-iab-wg-2026/.
Competition and Markets Authority (CMA). 2025. Cloud Services Market Investigation: Summary of Final Decision. July 31, 2025. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/688b20e6ff8c05468cb7b120/summary_of_final_decision.pdf. Décision réglementaire définitive sur le marché britannique de l’infrastructure de cloud public.
European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA). 2025. ENISA Threat Landscape 2025. Version 1.2, updated January 9, 2026. https://doi.org/10.2824/1946374. Rapport officiel. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/enisa-threat-landscape-2025.
European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA). 2026. ENISA’s View on Cybersecurity in the Frontier AI Era. July 7, 2026. https://doi.org/10.2824/9549088. Rapport officiel assorti de premières recommandations relatives aux capacités opérationnelles contre des menaces évoluant à la vitesse des machines ; ne remplace pas le Threat Landscape annuel. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/enisas-view-on-cybersecurity-in-the-frontier-ai-era.
United Nations General Assembly. 2021. Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security: Note by the Secretary-General. March 18, 2021. A/75/816, Annex I, Final Substantive Report of the Open-ended Working Group. https://docs.un.org/en/A/75/816. Rapport officiel des Nations unies. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3908015.
Competition and Markets Authority (CMA). 2026a. Actions on Cloud and Business Software through the UK Digital Markets Competition Regime. March 31, 2026. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/69cbb8d52d120d9d5ec0f311/Actions_on_cloud_and_business_software_through_the_UK_digital_markets_competition_regime.pdf. Document officiel de politique réglementaire, distinct de la décision définitive de 2025 et du lancement de l’enquête SMS.
Competition and Markets Authority (CMA). 2026b. Microsoft’s Business Software Ecosystem. May 14, 2026. SMS investigation launch. https://www.gov.uk/cma-cases/microsofts-business-software-ecosystem. Lancement d’une enquête réglementaire, et non désignation au titre du SMS.
Northern Corridor Transit and Transport Coordination Authority (NCTTCA). n.d.-a. “Port of Mombasa.” https://www.ttcanc.org/corridor-infrastructure/port-of-mombasa/. Contexte géographique institutionnel ; ne constitue pas une preuve des quantités du scénario fictif.
U.S. Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS). 2026a. “Extension of Authorized Integrated Circuit (IC) Designer Status and Application Deadline to Become an Approved IC Designer.” Final rule, effective April 7, 2026. Federal Register 91 (April 9, 2026): 17851–17852. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2026-04-09/html/2026-06851.htm. Règle définitive ; les échéances précisées relatives au statut de concepteur et aux demandes sont prévues pour le 2026-12-31.
U.S. Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS). 2026b. Guidance Regarding Enforcement of License Requirements for Advanced Computing Items for Entities Headquartered in Country Group D:5 and Macau. May 31, 2026. https://www.bis.gov/media/documents/bis-guidance-may-31-2026.pdf. Orientations officielles d’application précisant les contrôles préexistants ; distinctes des règles de janvier et d’avril.
Chesney, Bobby, and Danielle Citron. 2019. “Deep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy, and National Security.” California Law Review 107 (6): 1753–1819. https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38RV0D15J. Source primaire du concept de « liar’s dividend ».
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2024c. Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act). Official Journal of the European Union L, 2024/1689 (July 12, 2024). As amended by Regulation (EU) 2026/1744. CELEX 32024R1689. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32024R1689. Droit en vigueur ; application progressive. CELEX 32024R1689 ; ELI reg/2024/1689/oj. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1689/oj/eng.
European Commission. n.d.-b. “Article 50: Transparency Obligations for Providers and Deployers of Certain AI Systems.” AI Act Service Desk. Explanatory service reproducing the AI Act; read with Regulation (EU) 2026/1744. https://ai-act-service-desk.ec.europa.eu/en/ai-act/article-50. Service officiel relatif à l’article 50 du règlement (UE) 2024/1689. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
European Commission. n.d.-c. “Article 53: Obligations for Providers of General-Purpose AI Models.” AI Act Service Desk. Explanatory service reproducing Article 53 of Regulation (EU) 2024/1689. https://ai-act-service-desk.ec.europa.eu/en/ai-act/article-53. Service officiel relatif à l’article 53 du règlement (UE) 2024/1689. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2016. Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of 27 April 2016 on the Protection of Natural Persons with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, and Repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation). Official Journal of the European Union L 119 (May 4, 2016): 1–88. CELEX 32016R0679. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj/eng. Droit en vigueur. CELEX 32016R0679 ; ELI reg/2016/679/oj.
Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (Article 29 Working Party). 2018. Guidelines on Automated Individual Decision-Making and Profiling for the Purposes of Regulation 2016/679. WP251 rev.01. Endorsed by the European Data Protection Board on May 25, 2018. https://www.edpb.europa.eu/documents/guideline/automated-decision-making-and-profiling_en. Lignes directrices interprétatives officielles ; il ne s’agit pas d’un texte législatif.
Court of Justice of the European Union. 2023. OQ v. Land Hessen (SCHUFA Holding). Case C-634/21, ECLI:EU:C:2023:957, December 7, 2023. CELEX 62021CJ0634. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:62021CJ0634. Jurisprudence contraignante pour l’interprétation du droit de l’UE. ECLI:EU:C:2023:957. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/redirect/juris/document/document.jsf?docid=280426&doclang=en.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2024b. Regulation (EU) 2024/1183 of 11 April 2024 amending Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 as regards establishing the European Digital Identity Framework. Official Journal of the European Union L, 2024/1183 (April 30, 2024). CELEX 32024R1183. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32024R1183. Droit en vigueur. CELEX 32024R1183 ; ELI reg/2024/1183/oj. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1183/oj/eng.
European Commission. 2026b. The European Digital Identity Wallet Architecture and Reference Framework. Version 3.0.0. Technical specification and release notes, July 23, 2026. EU Digital Identity Wallet official repository. Version 3.0.0 superseded version 2.9.0 of May 21, 2026. https://github.com/eu-digital-identity-wallet/eudi-doc-architecture-and-reference-framework/releases/tag/v3.0.0. Spécification technique et notes de version, remplaçant la version 2.9.0 du 2026-05-21.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2022. Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of 19 October 2022 on a Single Market for Digital Services (Digital Services Act). Official Journal of the European Union L 277 (October 27, 2022): 1–102. CELEX 32022R2065. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32022R2065. Droit en vigueur. CELEX 32022R2065 ; ELI reg/2022/2065/oj. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2022/2065/oj/eng.
European Commission. n.d.-a. “Article 5: Prohibited AI Practices.” AI Act Service Desk. Explanatory service reproducing the AI Act; read with Regulation (EU) 2026/1744 and its phased application dates. https://ai-act-service-desk.ec.europa.eu/en/ai-act/article-5. Service officiel relatif à l’article 5 du règlement (UE) 2024/1689. Consultation : 2026-07-14.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2024a. Directive (EU) 2024/2831 of 23 October 2024 on improving working conditions in platform work. Official Journal of the European Union L, 2024/2831 (November 11, 2024). Article 29(1) sets a December 2, 2026 transposition deadline. CELEX 32024L2831. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32024L2831. Droit de l’UE à transposer ; champ d’application sectoriel. CELEX 32024L2831 ; ELI dir/2024/2831/oj. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/2831/oj/eng.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2019. Directive (EU) 2019/790 of 17 April 2019 on copyright and related rights in the Digital Single Market. Official Journal of the European Union L 130 (May 17, 2019): 92–125. CELEX 32019L0790. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2019/790/oj/eng. Droit de l’UE transposé avec des différences nationales. CELEX 32019L0790 ; ELI dir/2019/790/oj.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2017a. Regulation (EU) 2017/745 of 5 April 2017 on medical devices. Official Journal of the European Union L 117 (May 5, 2017): 1–175. As amended. CELEX 32017R0745. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2017/745/oj. Droit en vigueur. CELEX 32017R0745 ; ELI reg/2017/745/oj. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2017/745/oj/eng.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2017b. Regulation (EU) 2017/746 of 5 April 2017 on in vitro diagnostic medical devices. Official Journal of the European Union L 117 (May 5, 2017): 176–332. As amended. CELEX 32017R0746. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32017R0746. Droit en vigueur. CELEX 32017R0746 ; ELI reg/2017/746/oj. Liens supplémentaires de la ressource : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2017/746/oj/eng.
European Data Protection Board (EDPB). 2023. Guidelines 05/2022 on the Use of Facial Recognition Technology in the Area of Law Enforcement. Version 2.0, April 26, 2023. https://www.edpb.europa.eu/system/files/2023-05/edpb_guidelines_202304_frtlawenforcement_v2_en.pdf. Lignes directrices interprétatives officielles, et non texte législatif.
Garante per la protezione dei dati personali (Garante). n.d. “Eredità digitale [Digital inheritance].” Institutional guidance reproducing Article 2-terdecies of Legislative Decree No. 196/2003, paragraphs 1–5. https://www.garanteprivacy.it/temi/internet-e-nuove-tecnologie/eredita-digitale. Guide institutionnel ; fondement juridique : décret législatif 196/2003, article 2-terdecies. Consultation : 2026-07-14.
European Commission. 2026a. Code of Practice on Transparency of AI-Generated Content. Final code published June 10, 2026; Commission Opinion dated July 8, 2026; AI Board adequacy assessment dated July 9, 2026. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/commission-opinion-assessment-code-practice-transparency-ai-generated-content; https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-publishes-code-practice-marking-and-labelling-ai-generated-content. Instrument volontaire pour la mise en œuvre de l’article 50 du règlement sur l’IA ; l’adhésion ne constitue pas une preuve concluante de conformité.
European Commission. 2025. “General-Purpose AI Code of Practice Now Available.” July 10, 2025. Publication announcement for the final voluntary code supporting compliance with the AI Act. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/general-purpose-ai-code-practice-now-available. Instrument volontaire d’aide à la conformité ; les obligations relatives aux modèles GPAI s’appliquent depuis le 2025-08-02, les pouvoirs de contrôle de la Commission devant s’appliquer à partir du 2026-08-02 et la mise en conformité des modèles GPAI existants étant prévue au plus tard le 2027-08-02. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2026. Regulation (EU) 2026/1744 of 8 July 2026 amending Regulations (EU) 2024/1689, (EU) 2018/1139 and (EU) 2023/1230 as regards the simplification of the implementation of harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (Digital Omnibus on AI). Official Journal of the European Union L, 2026/1744 (July 24, 2026). Entered into force July 27, 2026. CELEX 32026R1744. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32026R1744. Droit en vigueur depuis le 2026-07-27 ; les différentes dispositions sont d’application progressive.
European Commission. 2026. “European Digital Identity Wallet Implementation.” Updated June 22, 2026. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/eudi-wallet-implementation. Contexte institutionnel de mise en œuvre ; conservé séparément de la spécification technique version 3.0.0. Consultation : 2026-07-17.
Government of Canada. 2019. Directive on Automated Decision-Making. As amended. https://www.tbs-sct.canada.ca/pol/doc-eng.aspx?id=32592. Directive de politique gouvernementale ; inclut l’évaluation de l’incidence algorithmique.