Bibliografía navegable

A. M. Turing, Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Oxford University Press / Mind. 1950. Fuente primaria. https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433.

John McCarthy, Marvin L. Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, Claude E. Shannon, A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence. Dartmouth College archive. 1955. Fuente primaria / archivo oficial. https://jmc.stanford.edu/articles/dartmouth/dartmouth.pdf.

Frank Rosenblatt, The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and Organization in the Brain. Psychological Review. 1958. Fuente primaria. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042519.

Marvin Minsky y Seymour Papert, Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry. MIT Press, 1969; edición ampliada, 1987. Fuente primaria; la página de la editorial remite a la edición ampliada. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262631112/perceptrons/.

David E. Rumelhart, Geoffrey E. Hinton, Ronald J. Williams, Learning representations by back-propagating errors. Nature. 1986. Fuente primaria. https://doi.org/10.1038/323533a0.

IBM, Deep Blue. 1997. Archivo empresarial oficial. Consulta: 2026. https://www.ibm.com/history/deep-blue.

Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever, Geoffrey E. Hinton, ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. NeurIPS. 2012. Fuente primaria. https://papers.nips.cc/paper/4824-imagenet-classification-with-deep-convolutional-neural-networks.

Ashish Vaswani et al., Attention Is All You Need. NeurIPS / arXiv. 2017. Fuente primaria. https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762.

Joseph Weizenbaum, ELIZA—A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication Between Man and Machine. Communications of the ACM. 1966. Fuente primaria. https://doi.org/10.1145/365153.365168.

OpenAI, Introducing ChatGPT. 2022-11-30. Anuncio empresarial oficial. https://openai.com/index/chatgpt/.

DARPA, ARPANET. 1969. Archivo institucional oficial. Consulta: 2026. https://www.darpa.mil/news/features/arpanet.

Internet Society, New Year's Day Marks 30th Anniversary of Major Milestone for Global Internet. 2013-01-01. Documentación institucional. https://www.internetsociety.org/news/press-releases/2013/new-years-day-marks-30th-anniversary-of-major-milestone-for-global-internet/.

CERN, A short history of the Web. Archivo institucional oficial. Consulta: 2026. https://home.cern/science/computing/the-birth-of-the-web/short-history-web/.

CERN, The open internet and the web. 2013-04-30. Documentación oficial. https://home.cern/open-internet-and-web/.

W3C Verifiable Credentials Working Group, Verifiable Credentials Data Model v2.0. 2025-05-15. W3C Recommendation. https://www.w3.org/TR/vc-data-model-2.0/.

W3C Verifiable Credentials Working Group, Verifiable Credential Data Integrity 1.0. 2025-05-15. W3C Recommendation. https://www.w3.org/TR/vc-data-integrity/.

W3C Verifiable Credentials Working Group, Securing Verifiable Credentials using JOSE and COSE. 2025-05-15. W3C Recommendation. https://www.w3.org/TR/vc-jose-cose/.

OpenID Foundation, OpenID for Verifiable Credential Issuance 1.0. 2025-09-16. Final Specification. https://openid.net/specs/openid-4-verifiable-credential-issuance-1_0.html.

OpenID Foundation, OpenID for Verifiable Presentations 1.0. 2025-07-09. Final Specification. https://openid.net/specs/openid-4-verifiable-presentations-1_0.html.

National Institute of Standards and Technology, Digital Identity Guidelines, NIST SP 800-63-4. 2025-07-31. Estándar técnico final. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63-4.

Dylan Yaga et al., Blockchain Technology Overview, NISTIR 8202. 2018-10-03. Informe técnico oficial. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8202.

World Health Organization, Ethics and governance of artificial intelligence for health. 2021-06-28. Directrices institucionales. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240029200.

World Health Organization, Regulatory considerations on artificial intelligence for health. 2023-10-19. Marco institucional de consideraciones regulatorias, no un reglamento. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240078871.

World Health Organization, Ethics and governance of artificial intelligence for health: Guidance on large multi-modal models. Edición y cita bibliográfica de la WHO: 2024; página institucional vigente fechada 2025-03-25. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240084759; https://www.who.int/publications/b/70584.

WHO Regional Office for Europe, Artificial intelligence is reshaping health systems: state of readiness across the European Union. 2026-04-20. Informe institucional sobre la preparación de los sistemas de salud de los 27 Estados miembros de la UE; no constituye prueba clínica de eficacia. WHO/EURO:2026-12707-52481-81471. https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/WHO-EURO-2026-12707-52481-81471.

World Health Organization, Artificial intelligence and evidence-informed policy: emerging challenges and opportunities: discussion paper. 2026-04-25. Documento técnico institucional; exige supervisión, evaluaciones de impacto y juicio humano. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/B09667.

Medical Device Coordination Group, MDCG 2019-11 rev.1, Guidance on Qualification and Classification of Software in Regulation (EU) 2017/745 — MDR and Regulation (EU) 2017/746 — IVDR. 2025-06-17. Guía oficial de la Comisión Europea, no un acto legislativo. https://health.ec.europa.eu/document/download/b45335c5-1679-4c71-a91c-fc7a4d37f12b_en.

Artificial Intelligence Board / Medical Device Coordination Group, AIB 2025-1 — MDCG 2025-6, Interplay between the Medical Devices Regulation, the In Vitro Diagnostic Medical Devices Regulation and the Artificial Intelligence Act. 2025. Guía conjunta oficial, no un acto legislativo. https://health.ec.europa.eu/document/download/b78a17d7-e3cd-4943-851d-e02a2f22bbb4_en.

World Health Organization, Mental health of adolescents. Actualizado 2025-09-01. Ficha institucional. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health.

World Health Organization, From loneliness to social connection: charting a path to healthier societies — Report of the WHO Commission on Social Connection. 2025-06-30. Informe institucional. https://www.who.int/groups/commission-on-social-connection/report.

UNICEF Innocenti, Guidance on AI and Children, Version 3.0. 2025-12. Guía institucional basada en los derechos de la infancia. https://www.unicef.org/innocenti/reports/policy-guidance-ai-children.

UNICEF, When AI becomes a friend: Child rights risks, harms, and regulatory responses to AI chatbots and companions. 2026-06. Informe de políticas; revisión regulatoria actualizada al 2026-05-15, no constituye prueba clínica. https://www.unicef.org/documents/when-ai-becomes-friend-child-rights-risks.

U.S. Federal Trade Commission, FTC Launches Inquiry into AI Chatbots Acting as Companions. 2025-09-11. Acto de investigación regulatoria, no un resultado clínico. https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2025/09/ftc-launches-inquiry-ai-chatbots-acting-companions.

UNESCO, Guidance for generative AI in education and research. 2023-09-07, página actualizada 2026-01-16. Guía institucional. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/guidance-generative-ai-education-and-research.

Paweł Gmyrek et al., Generative AI and Jobs: A Refined Global Index of Occupational Exposure. ILO Working Paper 140. 2025-05-20. Informe de investigación institucional. https://doi.org/10.54394/HETP0387.

Carl Öhman, Luciano Floridi, An ethical framework for the digital afterlife industry. Nature Human Behaviour, 2, 318–320. 2018-04-09. Artículo científico. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0335-2.

UN Trade and Development, Technology and Innovation Report 2025: Inclusive artificial intelligence for development. 2025-04-07. Informe de la ONU. https://unctad.org/publication/technology-and-innovation-report-2025.

International Energy Agency (IEA), Energy and AI. 2025-04-10. Informe institucional. https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-and-ai.

Arman Shehabi et al., 2024 United States Data Center Energy Usage Report. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory / U.S. Department of Energy, 2024-12-19. Informe técnico oficial. DOI 10.71468/P1WC7Q. https://eta.lbl.gov/publications/2024-lbnl-data-center-energy-usage-report.

U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Use Terminology. Página oficial. Consulta: 2026-07-15. Definiciones operativas de withdrawal y consumptive use. https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources/science/water-use-terminology.

International Organization for Standardization, ISO 14040:2006, Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Principles and framework; ISO 14044:2006, Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Requirements and guidelines. Ediciones vigentes confirmadas en 2022. Estándares metodológicos. https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html; https://www.iso.org/standard/38498.html.

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026. Versión 1.3, mayo 2026. Informe oficial. https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2026.

International Energy Agency (IEA), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025. 2025. Informe institucional. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2025.

UNITAR SCYCLE y International Telecommunication Union, Global E-waste Monitor 2024. 2024-03-20. Informe de la ONU. https://www.itu.int/hub/publication/d-gen-e_waste-01-2024/.

Starcloud, Starcloud-1. Página empresarial sobre actividades propias; declara el lanzamiento del satélite en noviembre de 2025, sin demostrar escala ni viabilidad comercial. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://www.starcloud.com/starcloud-1.

Axiom Space, Orbital Data Centers. Página empresarial sobre actividades propias; declara el lanzamiento de los dos primeros nodos dedicados en órbita terrestre baja el 11 de enero de 2026. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://www.axiomspace.com/orbital-data-center.

Google Research, Exploring a space-based, scalable AI infrastructure system design. 2025-11-04. Anuncio empresarial del Project Suncatcher; los dos satélites prototipo previstos para comienzos de 2027 siguen siendo un proyecto anunciado, no un lanzamiento realizado. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://research.google/blog/exploring-a-space-based-scalable-ai-infrastructure-system-design/.

Comisión Europea, CORDIS, Advanced Space Cloud for European Net zero emissions and Data sovereignty (ASCEND), grant agreement 101082517: Fact Sheet y Periodic Reporting. Proyecto: 2023-01-01–2024-04-30; informe actualizado: 2026-01-14. Ficha e informe institucionales de viabilidad; no son una fuente técnica independiente. DOI del proyecto 10.3030/101082517. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/101082517; https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/101082517/reporting.

Slava G. Turyshev, Orbital Data Centers: Spacecraft Constraints and Economic Viability. 2026-04-29. Preprint técnico independiente, arXiv:2604.27197. DOI 10.48550/arXiv.2604.27197. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://arxiv.org/abs/2604.27197; https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2604.27197.

Mahmoud Al Ahmad, Qurban Memon y Michael Pecht, Reliability and Risk in Space-Based Data Centers: A Lifecycle Assessment of Orbital Cloud Infrastructure. Applied Sciences, 16(11), 5247. 2026-05-23. Artículo técnico independiente revisado por pares. DOI 10.3390/app16115247. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/16/11/5247; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16115247.

Andrew R. Wilson, Massimiliano Vasile, Christie Maddock y Keith Baker, Implementing life cycle sustainability assessment for improved space mission design. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 19, 1002–1022, 2023. Artículo técnico independiente revisado por pares. DOI 10.1002/ieam.4722. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ieam.4722; https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4722.

Daniel M. Murphy et al., Metals from spacecraft reentry in stratospheric aerosol particles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(43), 2023. Artículo científico independiente revisado por pares; copia en el repositorio institucional de la NOAA. DOI 10.1073/pnas.2313374120. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/58476; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2313374120.

Kenya Ports Authority, Port of Mombasa. Página institucional sobre la conexión multimodal del puerto con el interior. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://kpa.co.ke/Ports/PortOfMombasa.

Northern Corridor Transit and Transport Coordination Authority, Who We Are. Página institucional sobre el Corredor Norte entre el puerto de Mombasa y los países sin litoral de la región de los Grandes Lagos. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://www.ttcanc.org/node/70.

NIST, Vision for Success: Facilities for Semiconductor Materials and Manufacturing Equipment. NIST / CHIPS for America. 2023-06-22. Documentación oficial. https://www.nist.gov/chips/vision-success-facilities-semiconductor-materials-and-manufacturing-equipment.

U.S. Government Accountability Office, Semiconductor Supply Chain: Policy Considerations from Selected Experts for Reducing Risks and Mitigating Shortages. 2022-07-26. Informe oficial. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-22-105923.

Comisión Europea, European Chips Act. Página institucional sobre el marco vigente; no es un acto normativo. Consulta: 2026. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/european-chips-act.

Comisión Europea, Proposal for the Chips Act 2.0. 2026-06-03. Propuesta legislativa, no derecho vigente. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/proposal-chips-act-20.

U.S. Bureau of Industry and Security, Revision to License Review Policy for Advanced Computing Commodities. Regla final, 91 FR 1684, 15 CFR parts 742, 744 y 748, publicada y vigente el 2026-01-15; Extension of Authorized Integrated Circuit Designer Status, 91 FR 17851, publicada el 2026-04-09 y vigente desde el 2026-04-07; Guidance on Advanced Computing Items, preguntas frecuentes de 2026-05. Actos y guía oficiales; su aplicación debe verificarse conforme a las EAR vigentes y a la transacción concreta. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2026/01/15/2026-00789/revision-to-license-review-policy-for-advanced-computing-commodities; https://www.bis.gov/regulations/federal-register-notices; https://www.bis.gov/regulations/ear/744; https://www.bis.gov/regulations/ear/748.

International Telecommunication Union y International Cable Protection Committee, International Advisory Body on Submarine Cable Resilience — Report of the Working Groups 2026. Aprobado 2026-07-10. Informe institucional final. https://www.itu.int/hub/publication/s-iab-wg-2026/.

UK Competition and Markets Authority, Cloud services market investigation — final decision. 2025-07-31. Decisión regulatoria final sobre el mercado británico de infraestructura pública de nube; actualización: Actions on cloud and business software through the UK digital markets competition regime, 2026-03-31, e inicio de la investigación SMS sobre el ecosistema de software de Microsoft, 2026-05-14. https://www.gov.uk/cma-cases/cloud-services-market-investigation; https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/business-software-and-cloud-services.

ENISA, ENISA Threat Landscape 2025. 2025-10-01. Informe oficial. https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/enisa-threat-landscape-2025.

ENISA, ENISA’s view on Cybersecurity in the Frontier AI Era. 2026-07-07. Informe oficial con recomendaciones iniciales para desarrollar capacidades operativas frente a amenazas a velocidad de máquina; no sustituye el Threat Landscape anual. https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/enisas-view-on-cybersecurity-in-the-frontier-ai-era.

Naciones Unidas, Final substantive report of the Open-ended Working Group on developments in the field of information and telecommunications in the context of international security, A/75/816. 2021-03-18. Informe oficial de la ONU. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3908015.

Robert Chesney y Danielle Keats Citron, Deep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy, and National Security. California Law Review, vol. 107, 2019, pp. 1753–1819. Fuente primaria del concepto de «liar’s dividend»; DOI 10.15779/Z38RV0D15J. https://www.californialawreview.org/print/deep-fakes-a-looming-challenge-for-privacy-democracy-and-national-security.

Parlamento Europeo y Consejo, Reglamento (UE) 2024/1689 (AI Act). 2024-06-13. Derecho vigente; aplicación progresiva. CELEX 32024R1689; ELI reg/2024/1689/oj. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1689/oj/eng.

Comisión Europea — AI Act Service Desk, AI Act — Article 50: Transparency obligations for providers and deployers of certain AI systems. Servicio oficial relativo al art. 50 del Reglamento (UE) 2024/1689. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://ai-act-service-desk.ec.europa.eu/en/ai-act/article-50.

Comisión Europea — AI Act Service Desk, AI Act — Article 53: Obligations for providers of general-purpose AI models. Servicio oficial relativo al art. 53 del Reglamento (UE) 2024/1689. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://ai-act-service-desk.ec.europa.eu/en/ai-act/article-53.

Parlamento Europeo y Consejo, Reglamento (UE) 2016/679 (RGPD). 2016-04-27. Derecho vigente. CELEX 32016R0679; ELI reg/2016/679/oj. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj/eng.

Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Guidelines on Automated individual decision-making and Profiling for the purposes of Regulation 2016/679, WP251 rev.01. Refrendadas por el Comité Europeo de Protección de Datos (CEPD) el 2018-05-25. Guía interpretativa oficial; no es una fuente legislativa. https://www.edpb.europa.eu/documents/guideline/automated-decision-making-and-profiling_en.

Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea, SCHUFA Holding (Scoring), C-634/21. 2023-12-07. Jurisprudencia vinculante para la interpretación del derecho de la UE. ECLI:EU:C:2023:957. https://infocuria.curia.europa.eu/tabs/redirect/juris/document/document.jsf?docid=280426&doclang=en.

Parlamento Europeo y Consejo, Reglamento (UE) 2024/1183 por el que se establece el marco europeo de identidad digital. 2024-04-11. Derecho vigente. CELEX 32024R1183; ELI reg/2024/1183/oj. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1183/oj/eng.

Comisión Europea, European Digital Identity Wallet implementation. Página actualizada: 2026-06-22. El marco prevé carteras digitales de los Estados miembros para finales de 2026; el repositorio oficial del Architecture and Reference Framework indica como versión vigente la v2.9.0 del 2026-05-21. Página institucional y especificación técnica. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/eudi-wallet-implementation; https://github.com/eu-digital-identity-wallet/eudi-doc-architecture-and-reference-framework/releases/tag/v2.9.0.

Parlamento Europeo y Consejo, Reglamento (UE) 2022/2065 sobre los servicios digitales (DSA). 2022-10-19. Derecho vigente. CELEX 32022R2065; ELI reg/2022/2065/oj. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2022/2065/oj/eng.

Comisión Europea — AI Act Service Desk, AI Act — Article 5: Prohibited AI practices. Servicio oficial relativo al art. 5 del Reglamento (UE) 2024/1689. Consulta: 2026-07-14. https://ai-act-service-desk.ec.europa.eu/en/ai-act/article-5.

Parlamento Europeo y Consejo, Directiva (UE) 2024/2831 relativa a la mejora de las condiciones laborales en el trabajo mediante plataformas digitales. 2024-10-23. Derecho de la UE pendiente de transposición; ámbito sectorial. CELEX 32024L2831; ELI dir/2024/2831/oj. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/2831/oj/eng.

Parlamento Europeo y Consejo, Directiva (UE) 2019/790 sobre los derechos de autor en el mercado único digital. 2019-04-17. Derecho de la UE transpuesto con diferencias nacionales. CELEX 32019L0790; ELI dir/2019/790/oj. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2019/790/oj/eng.

Comisión Europea, Code of Practice on Transparency of AI-Generated Content. Versión final publicada 2026-06-10; dictamen de la Comisión del 8 de julio de 2026 y evaluación de idoneidad del Consejo de IA del 9 de julio de 2026. Instrumento voluntario para aplicar el art. 50 del AI Act; la adhesión no constituye prueba concluyente de conformidad. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-publishes-code-practice-marking-and-labelling-ai-generated-content; https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/commission-opinion-assessment-code-practice-transparency-ai-generated-content.

Comisión Europea, General-Purpose AI Code of Practice. Versión final publicada el 2025-07-10. Instrumento voluntario de apoyo al cumplimiento; las obligaciones GPAI se aplican desde el 2025-08-02 y la potestad de ejecución de la Oficina de IA desde el 2026-08-02 para los modelos nuevos y desde el 2027-08-02 para los existentes. Consulta: 2026-07-17. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/general-purpose-ai-code-practice-now-available.

Parlamento Europeo y Consejo, Reglamento (UE) 2017/745 relativo a los productos sanitarios. 2017-04-05. Derecho vigente. CELEX 32017R0745; ELI reg/2017/745/oj. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2017/745/oj/eng.

Parlamento Europeo y Consejo, Reglamento (UE) 2017/746 relativo a los productos sanitarios para diagnóstico in vitro. 2017-04-05. Derecho vigente. CELEX 32017R0746; ELI reg/2017/746/oj. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2017/746/oj/eng.

European Data Protection Board, Guidelines 05/2022 on the use of facial recognition technology in the area of law enforcement. Versión final 2.0, 2023-05-17. Guía interpretativa oficial; no es ley. https://www.edpb.europa.eu/system/files/2023-05/edpb_guidelines_202304_frtlawenforcement_v2_en.pdf.

Garante per la protezione dei dati personali, Eredità digitale e art. 2-terdecies del Codice privacy. Guía institucional; base normativa: d.lgs. 196/2003, art. 2-terdecies. Consulta: 2026-07-14. https://www.garanteprivacy.it/temi/internet-e-nuove-tecnologie/eredita-digitale.